University Question Paper 2013

University Question Paper 2013

MODULE V Learning Style, Orientation, Reflective Practices, Meta Cognition

LEARNING STYLES & ORIENTATIONS IN LEARNING
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Metacognition 

Metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about knowing." It can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: knowledge about cognition, and regulation of cognition Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them, e.g., the learning-relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; [or] if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact. 

Metacognition is classified into three components 

1. Metacognitive knowledge (also called metacognitive awareness) is what individuals know about themselves and others as cognitive processors. 

2. Metacognitive regulation is the regulation of cognition and learning experiences through a set of activities that help people control their learning. 

3. Metacognitive experiences are those experiences that have something to do with the current, on-going cognitive endeavor. 

               Metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves active control over the process of thinking that is used in learning situations. Planning the way to approach a learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task: these are skills that are metacognitive in their nature.

 Metacognition includes at least three different types of metacognitive awareness when considering metacognitive knowledge: 

1. Declarative Knowledge: refers to knowledge about oneself as a learner and about what factors can influence one's performance. Declarative knowledge can also be referred to as "world knowledge". 

2. Procedural Knowledge: refers to knowledge about doing things. This type of knowledge is displayed as heuristics and strategies. A high degree of procedural knowledge can allow individuals to perform tasks more automatically. This is achieved through a large variety of strategies that can accessed more efficiently 

3. Conditional knowledge: refers to knowing when and why to use declarative and procedural knowledge. It allows students to allocate their resources when using strategies. This in turn allows the strategies to become more effective. Similar to metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation or "regulation of cognition" contains three skills that are essential 

1. Planning: refers to the appropriate selection of strategies and the correct allocation of resources that affect task performance. 

2. Monitoring: refers to one's awareness of comprehension and task performance 

3. Evaluating: refers to appraising the final product of a task and the efficiency at which the task was performed. This can include re-evaluating strategies that were used. 

Reflective practice 

Reflective practice is "the capacity to reflect on action so as to engage in a process of continuous learning", which, according to the originator of the term, is "one of the defining characteristics of professional practice". According to one definition it involves "paying critical attention to the practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice reflectively and reflexively. Reflective practice can be an important tool in practice-based professional learning settings where individuals learning from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal teaching or knowledge transfer, may be the most important source of personal professional development and improvement. As such the notion has achieved wide take-up, particularly in professional development for practitioners in the areas of education and healthcare. The question of how best to learn from experience has wider relevance however, to any organizational learning environment. In particular, people in leadership positions have a tremendous development opportunity if they engage in reflective practice. Much important reflection can occur once the immediate pressure of acting in real time has passed. Some learning inevitably takes time and the ability to view particular events in a wider context. Reflection following events has been discussed in the literature for many years, but it is important to emphasise that it is not simply a process of thinking, but one also involving feelings, emotions and decision-making. We can regard it as having three elements: return to experience ,attending to feelings and re-evaluation of experience . These are features of reflection at all stages and what is written here is also applicable at earlier stages. 

Return to experience .  The base of all learning is the lived experience of the learner. To return to this and recapture it in context with its full impact allows for further reflection. Often too little emphasis is placed on what has happened and how it was experienced at the time. Judgments about this are made prematurely and possibilities for further learning can be shut out forever. Mentally revisiting and vividly portraying the focus experience in writing can be an important first step. The role of journal writing here is to give an account of what happened and retrieve as fully as possible the rich texture of events as they unfolded. The emphasis is on conjuring up the situation afresh and capturing it in a form that enables it to be revisited with ease. Attending to feelings . As part of returning to the experience, we need to focus on the feelings and emotions which were (or are) present. These feelings can inhibit or enhance possibilities for further reflection and learning. Feelings experienced as negative may need to be discharged or sublimated otherwise they may continually distort all other perceptions and block understanding; those experienced as positive can be celebrated as it is these which will enhance the desire to pursue learning further. Expressive writing has a particular role in working with our feelings. Journals are not just the place for writing prose. Images, sketches, poems, the use of colour and form and differently draw words are among devices that can be used as vehicles to express ways of experiencing. Stream of consciousness writing in which words are poured out without pause for punctuation, spelling or self-censorship can be of value here. Rainer (1980) has, for example, many good examples of expressive forms of writing.
Re-evaluation of experience . Re-acquaintance with the event and attending to and expressing the thoughts and feelings associated with it, can prepare the ground for freer evaluation of experience than is often possible at the time. The process of re-evaluation includes, relating new information to that which is already known; seeking relationships between new and old ideas; determining the authenticity for ourselves of the ideas and feelings which have resulted; and making the resulting knowledge one’s own, a part of one’s normal ways of operating. These aspects should not be thought of as stages through which learners should pass, but parts of a whole to be taken up as needed for any particular purpose.
                 These reflective processes can be undertaken in isolation from others, but doing so may often lead to a reinforcement of existing views and perceptions. Working one-to- one or with a group for which learning is the raison d’être can begin to transform perspectives and challenge old patterns of learning. It is only through give and take with others and confronting the challenges they pose that critical reflection can be promoted. From the more diligent writing of return to experience, and the expressive modes of attending to feelings, re-evaluation is about finding shape, pattern and meaning in what has been produced. It involves revisiting journal entries, of looking again at what has been recorded, of adding new ideas and extensions of those partially formed. It addresses the question: what sense can I make of this and where does it lead me? It involves trying out new ideas and asking the ‘what if’ questions mentioned earlier. Re- evaluation is the end of one cycle and the beginning of another as new situations are imagined and explored.

 Types of Learning  Orientations

Firstly, the Meaning Orientation includes: Deep Approach (DEEPAPRH): active learning, questioning. Relating ideas (RELATIID): recognizing connections between ideas. Use of evidence (USEVIDNC): basing conclusions on evidence. Intrinsic Motivation (INTRNSIC): interest shown in learning for its own sake. Comprehension Learning (CMPLEARN): willingness to organize the subject matter and think in an independent way. Secondly, the Reproducing Orientation includes: Surface Approach (SURFACEA): learning by rote. Syllabus Boundness (SYLBOUND): dependence on definitions set by teacher for academic work. Fear of Failure (FEARFAIL): pessimism and anxiety regarding the outcome of academic work. Extrinsic Motivation (EXTRNSIC): interest in courses for the qualifications. Operation Learning (OPRLEARN): emphasis on facts and logical analysis. Improvidence(IMPROVID): pathology of focusing on details. Thirdly, the Achieving Orientation includes: Strategic Approach (STRATEGC): awareness of the implications of academic demands imposed by the professor. Achievement Motivation (ACHIEVMT): competitiveness and self confidence. Finally, the Non-academic Orientation includes: Disorganised Study Methods (DISORGSM): inability to work regularly and efficiently. Negative Attitudes (NEGATIVE): lack of interest and effort. Globetrotting (GLOBTROT): pathology of jumping to conclusions without carrying out the relevant justifications.

LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY SAMPLES 1 2 3 4

Memory and Information Processing

Memory and Information Processing¹

 CLICK ON THE HEADING

Human learning is a complex activity: when we learn, we do not just "acquire new response patterns." We think. We receive, store, integrate, retrieve, and use vast amounts of information. In fact, human learning is such a complex activity that it almost defies description: even the most prominent cognitive theorists admit that there is much that we do not know about what goes on inside the human brain. Nevertheless, cognitive psychology has made substantial contributions to the theory of learning and instruction.

This chapter will describe what we know about how people receive, store, integrate, retrieve, and use information. The fact that this chapter focuses very heavily on memory should not by any means be taken as an indication that memorization of information is more important than the useful application of that information. Rather, the accurate storage and recall of information and concepts should be viewed as the basis for most other intellectual activities.

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the operation of human memory and of its individual components.
   
2. Describe strategies to enable learners to receive information effectively through their sensory registers.
   
3. Describe strategies for transferring information accurately and efficiently to working memory and for keeping information in working memory.
   
4. Describe strategies for transferring information accurately to long-term memory and for retrieving information from long-term memory.
   
5. Describe the basic factors that contribute to forgetting and describe strategies to minimize forgetting.
   
6. Define automaticity and describe the role of overlearning in human information processing.
   
7. Define positive and negative transfer and describe their impact on human learning and information processing.

PEER TUTORING

Peer tutoring

Introduction:

It is a cognitive apprenticeship between peers. Tutoring is usually done between  Adult and child; expert and Novice. Individual tutoring is an effective strategy that benefits many students, especially those who are not doing well in a subject.

Class room Aides/ Volunteers/Mentors

Teacher can utilize them to give individual attention to week students. One to One tutoring can be done for this end that a teacher cant give. (Parents, College students, retired hands were also be utilized as mentors).

Peer tutoring

Fellow students can be effective tutors. One student teaches another. In cross sectional peer tutoring one peer is older. Same age peers tutoring- peer is a class mate of same age. Cross age is better. Same age also lead to negative social comparison. 

Peer tutoring Enhances students achievement. Benefit both- tutor and tutee especially when older tutor is a low achiever. Teaching something to some one is one of the best ways to learn.

PALS

Peer Assisted Learning Strategy is also peer tutoring. (A program conducted in USA).

Suggestions for peer tutoring

• Use cross age tutoring rather than same age tutoring when possible
• Give specific time and specific learning task
• Let students participate both tutor and tutee roles
• Both help and being helped
• Pairing of best friends is not a good strategy ( They do not always focused on learning assignments)
• Dont let tutors give tests to tutees ( It reduce Co operation)
• Spend time for training tutors 
• Discuss competent peer tutoring strategies
• Demonstrate how scaffolding works
• Give the tutor clear organized instruction and invite them to ask questions about their assignments
• Divide group of peers tutors in to pairs
• Let them practice what teacher had demonstrated
• Let them alternatively be tutor and tutee
• Dont overuse peer tutoring. (High achievers should get ample opportunity in challenging intellectual task for them selves)Let parents know that their child will be involved in peer tutoring
• Explain the advantage of this strategy and invite them to visit the class room to observe how the peer tutoring works.

Brain Based Learning

Brain-Based Learning

Author: Andrea Spears and Leslie Wilson

listen to ‘Brain based learning’ on Audioboo

Definition

Brain-Based learning is a comprehensive approach to instruction based on how current research in neuroscience suggests our brain learns naturally. This theory is based on what we currently know about the actual structure and function of the human brain at varying stages of development. This type of education provides a biologically driven framework for teaching and learning, and helps explain recurring learning behaviours. It is a meta-concept that includes an eclectic mix of techniques. Currently, these techniques stress allowing teachers to connect learning to students’ real life experiences. This form of learning also encompasses such educational concepts as:

• Mastery Learning, • Learning Styles, • Multiple Intelligences, • Cooperative Learning, • Practical Simulations, • Experiential Learning, • Problem-Based Learning, • Movement Education.

History

For 2,000 years there have been primitive models of how the brain works. Up until the mid 1900’s the brain was compared to a city’s switchboard. Brain theory in the 1970’s spoke of the right and left-brain. Later the concept of the triune (3 in 1) brain (a term coined by Paul McClean that refers to the evolution of the human three part brain) was introduced. In this theory McClean hypothesized that survival learning is in the lower brain, emotions were in the mid-brain, and higher order thinking took place in the upper brain. Currently, we embrace a whole system, complex brain model.  During the last two decades neuroscientists have be doing research that has implications for improved teaching practices. Neuroscience is based on information obtained through autopsies, experiments, and different types of scans -- MRIs, EEGs, PET and CAT scans, as well as the most recent brain research lab studies in neuroscience. Neuroscientists construct clinical studies that use double blind, large, diverse, multi-age, multicultural groups of people to gather reliable information. This information has helped determine how human learning actually occurs. In essence these scientists have been peering into the “black box” in order to determine how the brain processes and retains information. Thus, technology in medicine has paved the way for many new learning innovations.

Specifically based on conclusions from research in neuroscience, professors from major universities have taken this information and incorporated it into books about learning. In accordance with these suggestions classroom practices can be modified by teachers applying new theories of teaching and learning based on recent findings. Some noted authors in this area are Marian Diamond, U. C., Berkeley; Howard Gardner, Harvard University; Renate and Geoffrey Caine; Thomas Armstrong; Candace Pert, Eric Jensen; etc.

Core principles directing brain-based education are:

1. The brain is a parallel processor. It can perform several activities at once.

2. The brain perceives whole and parts simultaneously.

3. Information is stored in multiple areas of the brain and is retrieved through multiple memory and neural pathways.

4. Learning engages the whole body. All learning is mind-body: movement, foods, attention cycles, and chemicals modulate learning.

5. Humans’ search for meaning is innate.

6. The search for meaning comes through patterning.

7. Emotions are critical to patterning, and drive our attention, meaning and memory. 8. Meaning is more important than just information.

9. Learning involves focused attention and peripheral perception.

10. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote.

11. We understand best when facts are embedded in natural spatial memory.

12. The brain is social. It develops better in concert with other brains.

13. Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by stress.

14. Every brain in uniquely organized.

15. Learning is developmental.

What then can educators do to enhance learning in classrooms?

Implications for best teaching practices and optimal learning

There are interactive teaching elements that emerge from these principles.

• Orchestrated immersion: Learning environments are created that immerse students in a learning experience.

Primary teachers build a rainforest in the classroom complete with stuffed animals and cardboard and paper trees that reach to the ceiling.

Intermediate teachers take students to a school forest to explore and identify animal tracks in the snow and complete orienteering experiences with a compass.

Junior high teachers take a field trip to an insurance company to have students shadow an employee all day.

High school teachers of astronomy have students experience weightlessness by scuba diving in the swimming pool.

• Relaxed alertness: An effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment.

Teachers play classical music when appropriate to set a relaxed tone in the classroom.

Bright lights are dimmed. Vanilla candles are used to calm students and peppermint scents are used to stimulate the senses.

All students are accepted with their various learning styles, capabilities and disabilities. A relaxed accepting environment pervades the room. Children are stretched to maximize their potential.

• Active processing: The learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it. Information is connected to prior learning.

The stage is set before a unit of study is begun by the teacher preparing the students to attach new information to prior knowledge so the new information has something to “latch onto.”

Twelve design principles based on brain-based research

1) Rich, stimulating environments using student created materials and products are evident on bulletin boards and display areas.

2) Places for group learning like tables and desks grouped together, to stimulate social skills and cooperative work groups. Have comfortable furniture and couches available for casual discussion areas. Carpeted and areas with large pillows who prefer not the work at a desk or table.

3) Link indoor and outdoor spaces so students can move about using their motor cortex for more brain oxygenation.

4) Safe places for students to be where threat is reduced, particularly in large urban settings.

5) Variety of places that provide different lighting, and nooks and crannies. Many elementary children prefer the floor and under tables to work with a partner.

6) Change displays in the classroom regularly to provide a stimulating situations for brain development. Have students create stage sets where they can act out scenes from their readings or demonstrate a science principle or act out a dialogue between historical figures.

7) Have multiple resources available. Provide educational, physical and a variety of setting within the classroom so that learning activities can be integrated easily. Computers areas, wet areas, experimental science areas should be in close proximity to one another. Multiple functions of learning are our goal.

8) Flexibility: This common principle of the past is relevant. The ‘teachable moment” must be recognized and capitalized upon. Dimensions of flexibility are evident in other principles.

9) Active and passive places: Students need quiet areas for reflection and retreat from others to use intrapersonal intelligences.

10) Personal space: Students need a home base, a desk, a locker area. All this allows learners to express their unique identity.

11) The community at large as an optimal learning environment: Teachers need to find ways to fully use city space and natural space to use as a primary learning setting. Technology, distance learning, community and business partnerships, all need to be explored by educational institutions.

12) Enrichment: The brain can grow new connections at any age. Challenging, complex experiences with appropriate feedback are best. Cognitive skills develop better with music and motor skills.

Optimizing learning through different mediums:

Music: Music can lower stress, boost learning when used 3 different ways:

• as a carrier - using melody or beat to encode content,

• as arousal - to calm down or energize,

• as a primer - to prepare specific pathways for learning content) impacts the immune system, and is an energy source for the brain.

Art: Art is an important part of brain-based education in that it provides many learners with avenues of expression and emotional conduits for learning and retaining information. Art is important in technology to aesthetically create pleasing power point presentations and multi- media displays to showcase work. Multicultural awareness is improved through the study of art. Due to the diverse power of art, some educators think the “arts” should be named as the fourth “R.”

Diverse forms of assessment: Maintaining portfolios is important for reflective improvement and self-assessment. These help teachers, parents and students observe demonstrated growth over time. Teachers also need to maintain appropriate content mastery through regular testing programs. And, demonstrations, writing and art are ways of assessing students’ progress, as are pre and post surveys and tests useful in assessing students’ progress. Both verbal and written self-assessments are important parts of proving academic growth, and interdisciplinary and cross-curricular projects provide realistic assessment tools. In essence, students should be exposed to multiple assessment methods. 

COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP

COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP
Presentation

Reference:- Educational Psychology- John W Santole

edute

Developmental psychologist Barabara Rogofff (1990) first explained the term Cognitive Apprenticeship. This model is supported by Albert Bandura's (1997) theory of modeling, which posits that in order for modeling to be successful, the learner must be attentive, must have access to and retain the information presented, must be motivated to learn, and must be able to accurately reproduce the desired skill. In cognitive apprenticeships, the activity being taught is modeled in real-world situations.

Definition:- An expert stretches and supports a novice’s understanding of and use of culture’s skill

All apprenticeship mainly focus on 2 aspects

1)      Activity in Learning

2)      Situational learning

Example:- Traditional apprenticeships, in which the apprentice learns a trade such as tailoring or woodworking by working under a master teacher

Similarly cognitive apprenticeships allow the master to model behaviors in a real-world context with cognitive modeling

Features of Cognitive apprenticeship:

·         Teachers acts as Model for students

·         Teachers (or skilled peers) support students effort as doing the task

·         Encourage students to continue their work independently

A study conducted in America (Heath 1989) stressed the importance of cognitive apprenticeship. Rich or Middle class parents engage their children in cognitive apprenticeship by reading picture books etc with their children before Kinder Garten but poor parents not do so. This strategy enhances learning ability of the former children to a great extent.

Key Aspects of Cognitive Apprenticeship:

Experts evaluate when the learner is ready to take a new step. This timing help  both the expert and the learner.

·         For the Expert it helps to stop the making direction to students

·         For learner it helps to guess when expert stop thinking and when the learner has to take the responsibility  to continue the task

Experts give the students appropriate opportunities to respond.

·         At moments when students passed up opportunities to respond the expert noticed what the student were doing.

·         When student passed 2 or 3 opportunities expert would continue with further explanations.

·         If no evidence of understanding appeared deny that further explanations, experts repeated or reformulated what they were saying

·         Expert uses collaborative completion of statements as a way to find out what the student understood.

·         A common strategy employed by the expert was to use a hint question to get  the student  unstuck

·         Thus, experts often attempts to evaluate students level of understanding by observing the looks  on their faces and how they respond to questions

·          This strategy is important  in class room

·          Student learning benefited by this

·         scaffolding and guided participation is used to help the student learn

·         There are six teaching methods rooted in cognitive apprenticeship theory

·         The first three (modeling, coaching, scaffolding) are at the core of cognitive apprenticeship and help with cognitive and metacognitive development. The next two (articulation and reflection) are designed to help novices with awareness of problem-solving strategies and execution similar to that of an expert. The final step (exploration) intends to guide the novice towards independence and the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain on their own.

·         Modelling is when an expert, usually a teacher, within the cognitive domain or subject area demonstrates a task explicitly so that novices, usually a student, can experience and build a conceptual model of the task at hand. For example, a math teacher might write out explicit steps and work through a problem aloud, demonstrating her heuristics and procedural knowledge.

·         Coaching involves observing novice task performance and offering feedback and hints to sculpt the novice's performance to that of an expert's. The expert oversees the novice's tasks and may structure the task accordingly to assist in the novice's development.

·         Instructional scaffolding is the act of putting into place strategies and methods to support the student's learning. These supports can be teaching manipulatives, activities, and group work. The teacher may have to execute parts of the task that the student is not yet able to do. This requires the teacher to have the skill to analyze and assess student abilities in the moment.

·         Articulation includes "any method of getting students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving process in a domain" Three types of articulation are inquiry teaching, thinking aloud, and critical student role. Through inquiry teaching teachers ask students a series of questions that allows them to refine and restate their learned knowledge and to form explicit conceptual models. Thinking aloud requires students to articulate their thoughts while solving problems. Students assuming a critical role monitor others in cooperative activities and draw conclusions based on the problem-solving activities. Articulation is described as consisting of two aspects: separating component knowledge and skills to learn them more effectively and, more common verbalizing or demonstrating knowledge and thinking processes in order to expose and clarify them.

·         Reflection allows students to compare their own problem-solving processes with those of an expert, another student, and ultimately, an internal cognitive model of expertise A technique for reflection could be to examine the past performances of both expert and novice and to highlight similarities and differences. The goal of reflection is for students to look back and analyze their performances with a desire for understanding and improvement towards the behavior of an expert.

·         Exploration involves giving students room to problem solve on their own and teaching student’s exploration strategies. The former requires the teacher to slowly withdraw the use of supports and scaffolds not only in problem solving methods, but problem setting methods as well. The latter requires the teacher to show students how to explore, research, and develop hypotheses. Exploration allows the student to frame interesting problems within the domain for themselves and then take the initiative to solve these problems.

David P Ausubel

Meaningful verbal Learning

Ausubel's "meaningful reception learning"

Introduction to Ausubel's theory

You probably noticed that Ausubel's theory has at least one thing in common with Gagne's: that it concerns itself primarily with intentional, or "school" learning. In that way, both theories differ from behaviorism and cognitive information processing, which attempt to explain aspects of all human learning or memory. Thus, Ausubel's theory, like Gagne's, suggests how teachers or instructional designers can best arrange the conditions that facilitate learning for students.

The overarching idea in Ausubel's theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already known.

Ausubel stresses meaningful learning, as opposed to rote learning or memorization; and reception, or received knowledge, rather than discovery learning. (Ausubel did not contend that discovery learning doesn't work; but rather that it was not efficient.)

The processes of meaningful learning

Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning can occur:

Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an instance or example of a concept that you have already learned. So, let's suppose you have acquired a basic concept such as "tree". You know that a tree has a trunk, branches, green leaves, and may have some kind of fruit, and that, when fully grown is likely to be at least 12 feet tall. Now you learn about a kind of tree that you have never seen before, let's say a persimmon tree, that conforms to your previous understanding of tree. Your new knowledge of persimmon trees is attached to your concept of tree, without substantially altering that concept in any way. So, an Ausubelian would say that you had learned about persimmon trees through the process of derivative subsumption.

Correlative subsumption. Now, let's suppose you encounter a new kind of tree that has red leaves, rather than green. In order to accommodate this new information, you have to alter or extend your concept of tree to include the possibility of red leaves. You have learned about this new kind of tree through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say that this is more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.

Superordinate learning. Imagine that you were well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but you did not know, until you were taught, that these were all examples of deciduous trees. In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but you did not know the concept itself until it was taught to you. This is superordinate learning.

Combinatorial learning. The first three learning processes all involve new information that "attaches" to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, "branch"). You could think of this as learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone about pollination in plants, you might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of how fish eggs are fertilized.

Instructional implications of Ausubel's theory

Ausubel's theory is not particularly in vogue today, perhaps because he seems to advocate a fairly passive role for the learner, who receives mainly verbal instruction that has been arranged so as to require a minimal amount of "struggle". Nevertheless, there are some aspects of his theory that you might find interesting.

The advance organizer. This seems to be the most enduring Ausubelian idea, even though it can be tricky to implement. There is a fair amount of intuitive appeal to the notion of epitomizing an idea before trying to teach the details. We've all had the experience of needing to understand the "big picture" before we can make sense of the details. You could think of the advance organizer as Ausubel's notion of how to provide this.

The comparative organizer. How do we remember concepts and keep them from fading or being lost into higher-level ideas? Ausubel proposed the comparative organizer as a way of enhancing the discriminability of ideas; i.e., permitting one to discriminate a concept from other closely related ones. A comparative organizer allows you to easily see the similarities and differences in a set of related ideas.

Progressive differentiation. According to Ausubel, the purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you're teaching three related topics A, B, and C, rather than teaching all of topic A, then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That is, in your first pass through the material, you would teach the "big" ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin to elaborate the details. Along the way you would point out principles that the three topics had in common, and things that differentiated them.

Schema theory

Why do we need schema theory?

Suppose you overheard the following conversation between two college-age apartment-mates:

A: Did you order it?

B: Yeah, it will be here in about 45 minutes.

A: Oh... Well, I've got to leave before then. But save me a couple of slices, okay? And a beer or two to wash them down with?

Do you know what the roommates are talking about? Chances are, you're pretty sure they are discussing a pizza they have ordered. But how can you know this? You've never heard this exact conversation, so you're not recalling it from memory. And none of the defining qualities of pizza are represented here, except that it is usually served in slices, which is also true of many other things.

The other theories we've looked at in this course would have a difficult time explaining how we can comprehend this conversation. Schema theory would suggest that we understand this because we have activated our schema for pizza (or perhaps our schema for "ordering pizza for delivery") and used that schema to comprehend this scenario.

In our discussions of CIP and Ausubel, it may have seemed as if the learner was relatively passive. New knowledge gets "slotted" somewhere in the brain, but neither theory seems to emphasize how that knowledge gets used. Schema theory, on the other hand, attempts to address specifically how we actively make meaning of information.

What is a schema?

A schema (plural schemata) is a hypothetical mental structure for representing generic concepts stored in memory. It's a sort of framework, or plan, or script. According to Stein and Trabasso (1982), schemata are thought to have these features:

·         Schemata are composed of generic or abstract knowledge; used to guide encoding, organization, and retrieval of information.

·         Schemata reflect prototypical properties of experiences encountered by an individual, integrated over many instances.

·         A schema may be formed and used without the individual's conscious awareness.

·         Although schemata are assumed to reflect an individual's experience, they are also assumed to be shared across individuals (at least within a culture).

·         Once formed, schemata are thought to be relatively stable over time.

·         We know more about how schemata are used than we do about how they are acquired.

Driscoll suggests that a schema is analogous to:

·         A play, in that it has a basic script, but each time it's performed, the details will differ.

·         A theory, in that it enables us to make predictions from incomplete information, by filling in the missing details with "default values." (Of course, this can be a problem when it causes us to remember things we never actually saw...)

·         A computer program, in that it enables us to actively evaluate and parse incoming information.

We all have a schema for going to a sit-down restaurant. We are usually greeted by a hostess and seated. A server comes and take our order for drinks and food. The food is delivered, we eat, we pay and we leave. Every time we go into a restaurant, we invoke that schema and it helps us to know what comes next.

Unfortunately, it doesn't always work.

Joyce and her husband were in Atlanta some years ago to see Shakespeare in the Park. They had never been in this particular part of Atlanta before but saw a building with a bright red and white striped awning and a surmised correctly that they could eat there before moving on to Oglethorpe University. They were greeted and seated. The server came to take their drink order, dropped them off and then never came back! After some time had elapsed, they flagged him down.

"Ooooh! You've never eaten here before!!?"

"No."

"Well, you see those refrigerators back there? You pick your cut of beef and grill it on the indoor grill."

Obviously schema can both facilitate and not facilitate learning.

How are schemata created and modified?

Schemata are created through experience with people, objects, and events in the world. When we encounter something repeatedly, such as a restaurant, we begin to generalize across our restaurant experiences to develop an abstracted, generic set of expectations about what we will encounter in a restaurant. This is useful, because if someone tells you a story about eating in a restaurant, they don't have to provide all of the details about being seated, giving their order to the server, leaving a tip at the end, etc., because your schema for the restaurant experience can fill in these missing details.

Sometimes, details get filled in incorrectly. For example, Elizabeth Loftus did some research examining people's recall for details after watching films of car accidents. Two groups of people saw exactly the same tape of a car accident. Both groups were asked a series of factual questions after the accident with only one difference - one of the groups was asked "How fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?" the other was asked "How fast were the cars going when they crashed into one another?" The group who got the "crashed" question was twice as likely to recall broken class at a later session (when indeed there had been none) than the group with the bumped question. Thus, our schemas help us fill in details which may never have been present in the original situation.

Not all of the information we have about an experience necessarily gets added to our schema. For example, there's a restaurant in Indianapolis where the seating booths are little jail cells. After you're seated, the server closes your cell doors. (Of course, you can escape any time you want, as long as you've paid your bill.) Even though you may go to this restaurant several times, your restaurant schema may still not include tables as miniature jail cells. This information is simply an outlier; it may be too unlike your experience at other restaurants.

Three processes are proposed to account for the modification of schemata:

·         Accretion: New information is remembered in the context of an existing schema, without altering that schema. For example, suppose you go to a bookstore, and everything you experience there is consistent with your expectations for a bookstore "experience." You can remember the details of your visit, but since they match your existing schema, they don't really alter that schema in any significant way. (Note that this is analogous to Ausubel's derivative subsumption.)

·         Tuning: New information or experience cannot be fully accommodated under an existing schema, so the schema evolves to become more consistent with experience. For example, when you first encountered a bookstore with a coffee bar, you probably had to modify your bookstore schema to accommodate this experience. (Note that this is analogous to Ausubel's correlative subsumption.)

·         Restructuring: When new information cannot be accommodated merely by tuning an existing schema, it results in the creation of new schema. For example, your experience with World Wide Web-based bookstores may be so different from your experience with conventional ones that you are forced to create a new schema.(Note that this may be similar to Ausubel's superordinate learning, or combinatorial learning, depending on the situation.)

What are mental models?

Mental models goes beyond schema theory to include perceptions of task demands and task performances. Mental models researchers are interested in how people perform tasks and solve problems in school settings and in the real world. (You can think of problem-solving as including both knowledge of schemata and knowledge of procedures.) This kind of research has been most prevalent in the sciences and mathematics.

Why are schema theory and mental models important in teaching and learning?

It's important to understand that schemata are powerful forces in learning. In an article on the role of schemata in story comprehension, Stein and Trabasso (1982) noted that:

·         Schematic knowledge has a significant effect on organization of ambiguous or disorganized stories.

·         Narrative schemata specify expected components of a story, such as the time sequence of events, and causal relations that should connect the events; during encoding or retrieval of a story, missing events may be inferred to fill in omitted information, and events may be reordered to correspond to a real-time sequence.

·         Many studies have shown that the use of schematic knowledge is so powerful that listeners have little control over the retrieval strategies used during recall of narrative information; even when listeners are instructed to reproduce texts verbatim, they cannot do so when the text contains certain types of omissions or certain sequences of events.

For example, consider the following excerpt from a story:

The girl sat looking at her piggy bank. "Old friend," she thought, "this hurts me." A tear rolled down her cheek. She hesitated, then picked up her tap shoe by the toe and raised her arm. Crash! Pieces of Piggo--that was its name--rained in all directions. She closed her eyes for a moment to block out the sight. Then she began to do what she had to do.

If you have a well-developed schema for "piggy banks", this story should be readily comprehensible. You would understand that traditional piggy banks were usually made of some fragile, brittle material, that they contained a slot for inserting and saving coins, and that the money could only be removed by breaking them.

On the other hand, if you have no schema for piggy bank, the story probably makes little sense, like the one below.

The procedure is actually quite simple. First, you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another fact of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one can never tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have the be repeated. However, that is a part of life.

Did you notice yourself looking for details which would key you to use the right schema? We feel quite disoriented when a schema cannot be activated.

What are some implications of schema theory and mental models research for instruction?

Schema theory:

·         Provide unifying themes for content, since information that lacks a theme can be difficult to comprehend, or, worse, the learner may "accrete" the information to the wrong schema, like the unlabeled washing machine story above. I'll bet you were waiting in anticipation for that answer. Your schema of teacher includes "will share the right answer (eventually!)".

·         Choose texts with "standard" arrangement so that they conform to student expectations.

·         Encourage students to read titles and headings.

·         Point out the structure of particular kinds of texts; e.g., what are the common features of published research articles?

·         Ask questions to determine what students' current schemata might be.

·         Pay attention to student answers and remarks that may give clues about how they are organizing information; i.e., what schemata are they using?

Mental models (particularly from mathematics and science):

·         Identify students' current "theories" or algorithms.

·         Use student errors as a source of information about their mental models.

·         Use "think aloud" activities, since these help to uncover current models.

·         Model real problem-solving for students. Students need to see that solving problems is not just a matter of plugging numbers into an algorithm; rather it is a matter of determining the kind of problem so that an algorithm can be successfully applied.

·         Explicitly teach problem-solving strategies.

·         Focus on processes, structures, and decisions, not answers.

·         Provide a mix of problem types, rather than grouping problems of one type; otherwise, students won't develop skill at determining problem type.

·         Confront incomplete or inaccurate schemata (particularly in science) with problems or outcomes that don't match what the learners expect to happen. Use them as a basis for discussion ensuring that tuning and restructuring are occurring to bring the schema more in line with scientific knowledge. See http://www.talariainc.com/facetfor a whole list of misconceptions in teaching physics (click on "Facets of thinking in physics" or "What are facets and facet clusters?".

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Learning activities

4.1 Discussion on meaningful learning and schema theory (in Oncourse)

To be completed by Friday July 12

There will be no formal facilitator or wrapper this week.

Unit 4 presents a complex problem for discussion. To facilitate a more meaningful and personal synthesis, you will complete the initial discussion activity in smaller groups. Thus, there will be no formal facilitator or wrapper this week. But, your group will be responsible for posting a synthesis to the main discussion forum by Friday, July 12.

Both synchronous (chat) and asynchronous (discussion forum) tools have been set up for you in Oncourse. Use whichever (or both) will help facilitate the completion of your synthesis. If you choose to communicate via email and/or outside of Oncourse, forward the instructors copies of your group communications, as always.

Anderson, Sheldon and Dubay (1990) studied college students' conceptions of respiration (which is the chemical and physical processes by which oxygen and carbohydrates are used to produce energy for an organism) and photosynthesis (which is the production of food by plants, a part of the energy production cycle for plants) at the beginning and at the end of a year-long biology course. At the beginning of the course, students offered grossly deficient answers, even though most students had had one or more years of biology previously. When asked on a pretest for a definition of respiration, few students mentioned energy, offering in many cases, simplistic definitions such as the following: " Exhaling CO2 for humans, exhaling O2 for plants"; "breathing"; "has lungs to breath with"; and "air in, air out". The same held true for pretest definitions of photosynthesis, another chemical process producing energy conversion. A minority of students mentioned food or energy in their definitions. What is probably more disturbing is that at the end of the course, many students still had misconceptions. Almost 25% had little idea about the nature of respiration; 20% did not understand that the essence of food is that it provides energy for metabolism and materials for growth; 40 % did not completely understand that plants make their own food; and more than 50% failed to understand that animals obtain energy from food and plants obtain energy from sunlight.

On the other hand, read this summary about some research by Clements and his colleagues (1987). High school physics students received instruction about forces exerted by static objects, frictional forces, and Newton's third law of collisions (i.e., if one object exerts a force on a second object, the second exerts an equal and opposite force on the first). Students in the treatment classes were presented anchoring intuitions, which were discussed. For the example of a rigid table's exerting force on a book that was lying on it (i.e., of a force exerted by a static object), students considered how a book might cause a piece of foam rubber to sag if placed on it, or how a book might bend a "table" made of flexible board (with the bending becoming less and less apparent as the board is thickened until the point when it is the thickness of a conventional table board). Students also reflected on how a spring would compress if a book were on it, and they experienced the force they exerted to hold a book in the palm of their hand. Although it took a number of discussions and bridging analogies to make the point, students in the classes using these analogies were better able to solve posttest problems involving forces exerted by static objects than were students receiving conventional instruction, with this advantage apparent even two months after instruction.

So, what do both of these examples have to do with the material in the readings for this unit? What might differences in instruction have to do with differences in outcomes? What recommendations might you make to the teacher in the first scenario given the theories introduced in the current chapter? What cautions might you include in the use of these instructional manipulations (i.e., analogies, refuting of commonly held beliefs, etc.)?

With your discussion group, synthesize your discussion into a list of the most important recommendations and cautions for educators designing instruction according to meaningful learning and schema theory.

4.2 Thought activity: Meaningful learning and schema theory

To be completed by Sunday, July 14

On your own or with your team (this may be a different team than the one above), think of an instructional goal that has, in your experience, been particularly difficult for learners to grasp. For example, when I teach my undergraduates about behaviorism, they always have difficulties with the difference between punishment and negative reinforcement.

How could the principles of meaningful learning and schema theory be used to help design effective instruction for this situation? Design a lesson based on these learning theories to help learners reach this instructional goal.

Both synchronous (chat) and asynchronous (discussion forum) tools have been set up for you in Oncourse. Use whichever (or both) will help facilitate the completion of your synthesis. If you choose to communicate via email and/or outside of Oncourse, forward the instructors copies of your group communications, as always.

How this thought activity will be assessed:

1.      Please limit your lesson to 3-4 pages.

2.      Both process and outcomes will be considered in the assessment.

3.      Support your lesson with evidence from the readings. Why do you think addressing the problem the way you've suggested would work according to schema theory or the ideas of meaningful learning? You may incorporate this into the lesson plan in whatever way works for your group.

4.      Have you chosen a relevant problem and explained the situation well enough that we can evaluate your lesson? Please provide appropriate context information.

4.3 Reflections

To be completed by Sunday, July 14

The purpose of the reflection is for you to think about what you have learned through this experience.

If you completed this activity individually, please submit the answer to these questions to your instructor along with your unit product:

1. Why did you choose to work individually on this activity?

2. How did this individual experience compare with your earlier group experiences?

3. How did your understanding of the learning theory change through this activity?

If you completed this activity as a group, please answer the following questions individually and submit to the instructor. Please be honest. No group experience is without challenges and frustrations. Reflecting on the challenges of the group experience is just as important as celebrating the positive achievements. Being honest will help us as instructors give better guidance to teams collaborating online in the future.

1. Evaluate the contribution of EACH of your project team members, including yourself, on a scale from 1 to 5. Refer to the descriptions below as you make your ratings.

0 = team member made no visible contributions to the project OR made significant and sustained negative contributions to the project

1 = team member made minimal contributions to the overall project 

2 = team member made uneven contributions to the project - some positive, some negative 

3 = team member made reasonable contributions to the project 

4 = team member made significant and sustained positive contributions to the project 

5 = team member made significant and sustained positive contributions to the project AND supported every member of the group by actively bringing out the best in others.

2. Briefly describe your group's approach to completing this thought activity.

3. Briefly describe your individual contribution and each team member's contributions to the activity.

4. How did your understanding of the learning theory change through this activity?

 

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Web resources

There are two schema theory links on the Web Resources page

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
DAVID AUSUBEL
by Barbara Bowen

The Person and His Time

Ausubel was influenced by Piaget’s cognitive development theory. He was very active in his field in the 1950’s to 1970’s. He developed his instructional models based on cognitive structures

His Theory

Ausubel’s theory is involved with how individuals learn large amounts of "meaningful" material from verbal/textual lessons in school. This is in contrast to theories developed in the laboratory.

In Ausubel’s subsumption theory, he contended that "the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows." (Ausubel, 1968) A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structures. A major instructional mode proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers. He emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and details in an arbitrary manner. Organizers act as a "subsuming bridge" (Ausubel, 1963) between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Scope/Application

Ausubel specifies that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He states that there are differences between reception learning and rote and discovery learning. Rote learning does not involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and in discovery learning the learner must discover information through problem solving.

Principles

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and them progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specifics.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

How Theory Can Help Teachers:

1. We need to remember that inputs to learning are important.
2. Learning materials should be well organized.
3. New ideas and concepts must be potentially meaningful to learner.
4. Anchoring new concepts into the learner’s already existing cognitive structure will make the new concepts recallable.

References:

Ausubel, David P. (1968). Educational Psychology, A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Ausubel, David P. (1967). Learning Theory and classroom Practice. Ontario: The Ontario Institute For Studies In Education.

Ausubel, David P. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.

Subsumption Theory  (D. Ausubel)   -  Overview:

Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers: "These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 , p. 81).

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema(e.g., Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development.

Scope/Application: -     Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).

Example: -           Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd's textbook of pathology as an example of progressive differentiation because the book presents information according to general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by describing organ systems in isolation. He also cites the Physical Science Study Committee curriculum which organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead of piece-meal discussion of principle or phenomenon (p. 78).

Principles:-    1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.

2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Constructivism Constructivism is a term used to represent a collection of theories based on the idea that individuals actively construct knowledge by working to solve problems. While the label is relatively recent, many of the ideas that make up constructivism have been around for quite some time. In 1896, John Deweyestablished a Laboratory School to test his educational theories and ideas based on constructivist principles. This was in sharp contrast to the behavioral paradigm of the day. Discovery learning, reception learning, and assisted learning (scaffolding) are three instructional models based on constructivist principles. As such, they are based on a top-down processing approach to learning where students are actively involved and utilize prior knowledge. They also assume that knowledge continually changes as old information becomes outmoded. In this top-down approach, students begin with analyzing complex problems and then discover the basic skills that are required as they go along. Even though these instructional models share certain similarities, they are quite different. (The main characteristics of the three models are compared in the table below.) Discovery learning, proposed byJerome Bruner in 1966, is one of the most influential cognitive models as it has many applications to science and related fields. Discovery learning encourages students to discover principles for themselves through experimentation and exploration. It is the teacher’s job to provide guidance when needed, but not before the student is allowed to explore a problem on her own, using previous knowledge and experiences, personal motivation, and experimentation. In criticism of discovery learning, David Ausubel (1968) described an alternative method of instruction called reception learning. This model suggests that it is the job of the teacher to structure learning, to select appropriate materials for students, and to present them in a well-organized fashion. Ausubel also maintained that students may need external motivation (such as quizzes and exams) to enhance learning. Assisted learning, or scaffolding, was conceptualized by Vygotsky. According to Vygotsky, “higher mental functions” such as the ability to focus attention or memory, or to think in terms of symbols is unique to humans and is passed down by teaching. Furthermore, the development of these functions is tied to social context and culture. In assisted learning, the teacher guides instruction so that students will internalize these higher functions. Then once these are acquired, the student will have the tools necessary for self-guided learning.

David Ausubel

Who:-There is virtually no information available on his life such as when and where he was born or even if he is still alive today.  He was, however, influenced heavily by Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory.  He was very active in the field of educational theory from the 1950’s through the 1970’s, during which time he developed his instructional models based on cognitive structures. 

What:- Ausubel’s most recognized theory was his Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.  His theory deals mostly with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal and textual lessons in school.  He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure.  Also, according to Ausubel, the most important factor in deciding what is learned is based on what is already known.  This means that ones own prior knowledge and biases limit and determine what is learned.  Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.  He further described three main categories on meaningful reception of information.

1.      1.      Representation- the meaning of a single word or symbol is learned.

2.      2.      Conceptual- the learned begins to recognize the features or attributes of a concept.

3.      3.      Propositional- the learner combines words and/or symbols to form new ideas.

Ausubel also described three ways in which new information is processed in the brain.

1.      1.      Subsumptive- newly learned material is subordinate to prior knowledge.

2.      2.      Subordinate- the student understands a new concept and prior information becomes subordinate to that which is newly acquired, and thus becomes secondary to the new idea.

3.      3.      Combinatorial- newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts.

Ausubel also described two main practices for education.

1.      1.      The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specifics.

2.      2.      Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented material.

Applications:-According to Ausubel, the teacher must progress slowly and methodically with the students at any age level.  The most important information must be presented first and everyone in the class must have a great understanding of the information before progressing.  Then, by gradually building on what was already learned, the new information is much easier to grasp and appreciate.  The only problem with this system is that sometimes the root information learned is not always valid in every circumstance.  For example, if a third grade student was drilled to understand that our solar system is made up of nine planets, that student would be devastated to learn that Pluto is probably not a planet at all.  This new idea would be difficult to accept, especially since all the student’s knowledge prior to this revelation was based on a nine-planet solar system.  Teachers have used his theories for years though, but they have not been taken to the lengths that he describes in his theories. 

Implications--Though his theories are already in practice, they are not followed as closely or as strictly as he dictates.  The student’s role will change slightly, as the student must not be afraid to ask for additional assistance.  The teacher must always be willing to hold up the class in order to explain the root ideas

Advaned Organizers

The "advanced organizer" approach to teaching is a cognitive instructional strategy used to promote the learning and retention of new information. Proposed by David Ausubel in 1960, this strategy is one of the most utilized methods of instruction in our schools today.http://vanguard.phys.udiaho.edu/mod/models/ausubel/index.html

In the development of this approach Ausubel (1960) promoted meaningful learning upholding that the most important thing a child could bring to learning situation was what s/he already knows. Therefore, meaningful learning results when that child consciously and explicitly ties new knowledge to relevant concepts within his/her schema. When this occurs it produces a series of changes within our entire cognitive structure. Existing concepts are modified and new linkages between concepts are formed. (http://www.edu.cuhk.edu.hk/~johnson/cmap/cmapguid.html)

Ausubel (1960) believed that meaningful learning is idiosyncratic and involves personal recognition of the links between concepts. The most important element of meaningful learning is not so much how information (rote vs. discovery) is presented but how new information is integrated into an existing knowledge base. (http://www.spjc.cc.fl.us/0/spns/lancraft/cmapping.html)

In order to enhance meaningful learning Ausubel believed that it was important to have students preview information to be learned. Teachers could do this by providing a brief introduction about the way that information that is going to be presented is structured. An example of this might be opening a lesson with a statement that provides an overview of what will be taught. In presenting outlines of information, teachers can help students see the big picture to be learned. http://vanguard.phys.udiaho.edu/mod/models/ausubel/index.html

This approach encourages students to build upon prior knowledge and mentally organize their thoughts before being introduced to the details of new concepts.

By making new material more familiar and meaningful to students, it should be easier to retrieve. (Gagne, 1988)

Subsumption Theory  (D. Ausubel)

Overview:

Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:

"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 , p. 81).

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema (e.g.,Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development.

Scope/Application:

Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).

Example:

Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd's textbook of pathology as an example of progressive differentiation because the book presents information according to general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by describing organ systems in isolation. He also cites the Physical Science Study Committee curriculum which organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead of piece-meal discussion of principle or phenomenon (p. 78).

Principles:

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.

2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

References:

Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.

Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48, 251-257.

Ausubel, D., Novak, J., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

For more on Ausubel’s work, see www.davidausubel.org

BRUNER LEARNING THEORY

Educational Implications

For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.

In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.

Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means students are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed to difficult to understand and must be taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity.

Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex information: 'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development'. (p. 33)

Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.

Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believe that the most effect way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher. The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructist approach).

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help student discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.

Bruner and Vygotsky

Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment, especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child's learning.

Bruner, like Vygotksy, emphasised the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding. The term scaffolding first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross described how tutors' interacted with pre-schooler to help them solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).

The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky's notion of the zone of proximal development, and it not uncommon for the terms to be used interchangeably. Scaffolding involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.

[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring. (Bruner, 1978, p. 19)

Bruner and Piaget

Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but an importantdifference is that Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they co-exist. Bruner states that what determines the level of intellectual development is the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or experience. So - the right way of presentation and the right explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of education and the adult.

Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesn’t see them as representing different separate modes of thought at different points of development (like Piaget). Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques into more integrated “adult” cognitive techniques.

Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development and since language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining cognitive development.

BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGET	BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET
1. Children are PRE-ADAPTED to learning	1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS – not a series of stages
2. Children have a NATURAL CURIOSITY	2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence of cognitive development
3. Children’s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over time	3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have to wait for the child to be ready
4. Children are ACTIVE participants in the learning process	4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference
5. Cognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLS	5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION

References